Chapter 1: introduction to development administration

TASK 1

a) What is development

Development generally means the improvement of people's lifestyles through improved education, incomes, skills development and employment.

Development also means that people should have decent housing, and that they should have security within those houses. People should be able to read and write, and in Africa this is a problem as most people are still illiterate, South Africa included. In order to develop or have better lives, people must get a good education. Because illiterate people do not develop as much as educated people do, it is therefore important that people should get themselves a good education, or send their children to school to get that education.

Development can mean ‘improvement’, good change’; or, in outcome form, ‘an achieved improvement’ or ‘a good state or situation’.Development is a process transforming structures, particularly those of production consumption and major institutions so that ‘basic human needs are satisfied for an increasing number of individuals at an increasingly high level’ (M.Markovic), within the framework of meaning provided by culture and the outer limits provided by nature. (Galtung 1980:105).

b) What is DA

DA can be defined as reflects inherently a concern with the organization and implementation of programs intended to advance development goals. When the administration becomes developed, automatically the program that wants to perform will become efficiently and effectively. But, to set up the program, the administration needs the system to ensure the program will run smoothly, efficiency and effectively.

Administration of all programs by the government is essential to enforce or implement the policy set up in order to achieve the aims of development as well as to boast the affordability and administration.

Development Administration is a part of Public Administration where the government set up through appropriate method to ensure the administration run smoothly to meet the people welfare.

c) Why we need development?

Development is very important in the administration. It is because it will make the administration become more outstanding. We need development so that society can change and growth in naturally and this process is peaceful evaluation, from simple society to complex society, based on technology and industrialization.

d) What is the significance of administration development.

1. Administration is important to minimize the poorness people in the country. When the administration become develops, the poor society in the country will become less. E.g.: the gap between those who live in rural area and those who live in urban area will be minimized. Then, their standard of living will be upgraded equally.Secondly, the administration development also essential to overcome delay of the development project in the country. When the delay occured, we will have a problem such as insufficient resources as well as prolong time in completing that project.

2. A guideline to manage the resources. The resources must be fully utilize so that we can avoid from suffering loss.

TASK 2

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic growth is usually measured by increases in a country’s per capita GNP. Unfortunately, they sometimes also use per capita GNP figures, explicitly or implicitly, to rank countries according to their level of development.

Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries for the well being of their inhabitants. It is related to the efforts that seek to improve the economic well being and quality of life for a community by creating and supporting or growing incomes and the tax bases.

Moreover, economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries for the well being of their inhabitants. it is related to the efforts that seek to improve the economic well being and quality of life and supporting or growing incomes and the tax base.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Political development as the Political Prerequisite of Economic Development. Political and social conditions could play a decisive role in impending or facilitating advance in per capita income, and thus it was appropriate to conceive of political development as the state of the polity which might facilitate economic growth.

Political Development also as the Politics Typical of Industrial Societies. The assumption is that industrial life produces a more-or-less common and generic type of political life which any society can seek to approximate whether it is in fact industrialized or not.

Furthermore, we also found that the political development as the operations of a Nation-State. To some degree these objections are met by the view that political development consists of the organization of political life and the performance of political functions in accordance with the standards expected of a modern nation-state.

Besides that, the political development thus becomes the processes by which communities that are nation- states in only in form and by international courtesy become nation-states in reality. According Political Development and Social Change, Second Edition by Jason L. Finkle (University of Michigan) and Richard W . Gable (university of California, Davis)

HUMAN AND SOCIAL DIMENSION OF DEVELOPMENT

The study of behavior and social relation including the specification of conditions and the shaping, maintenance, and alteration variety character of both social structure and industrialization and to analyze the relationships among their components.

Behavior is not immediately categorized into sets such as institutions, instead the determinants and consequences of specific activities are outlined, and their rules in the establishment of industry are indicated. The need of behavior modification can then be assessed, and the procedures that might be employed can be evaluated.

For example, Thailand and Japan. A comparison of in Japan shows that although the latter in economically move developed than the farmer. The difference exists in the face of important similarities. Exposure to the west, traditions of borrowing, political independences, a respected central government and foreigner markets were common to both nations and thus cannot account for the different rates of industrialization. (Society in economic growth- John H. Kunkel A behavior Perspective of social change.)

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEVELOPMENT

Development administration is considered as field of study or a sub-area under public administration (Nicholson and Connerley. 1989). It is a relatively new area as compared to public administration which history can be traced as early as 1887 with the publication of “The study of Administration” by Woodrow Wilson.

Public administration covers a wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state. These two areas are then sub-divided into other minor areas such as management, organization, political, economy, environment and development. More and more concerns are brought into the public administration agenda that it becomes very complex. As an important field of study under the social science, public administration has gained recognition and hailed by the developed and developing nations alike.

Development administration emerged as field of study as a result of research, observations and implementations carried out by scholars of public administration who are interested in the progress that look place among developing nations. Some of these scholars together created a community of developing nations, their clients. For more than 25years this community has provided assistances through universities research institutions of these scholars; FW. Riggs, John D. Montgemery.Milton.J.Esman.Raiph Bribanti William Siffin. Irving Swerdlow and H.S. Philips.
(Development Administration – HJ. Rozalli Hashim)

TASK 4

If you were about to redefine development administration, how it would be? What rational of the definition?

Development administration can be define as a administration of all programs by the government to implement the policies set up in order to achieve the objective of development as well as to boost affordability. Here, government can initiates so many development programs as to achieve the level of development they set before. There is so many development programs enforced by the government for example; free electricity bills to all the society who use it below RM20 and free text books to all the students at the primary and secondary schools. The objective of development programs have their own motive. For example, it is aim to make society free from subjugation or to get people entire world to know our country. Government also provide most of the chances for people to develop themselves . However the government have responsibility to handle the people affairs such as to help people by giving them loan to start a business.

TASK 5

Differences between Developing countries and Developed countries

1. Standards of living

Developing: Low standards of living. Low standards of living manifest themselves in many ways including low incomes, high rates of poverty, inadequate housing, poor health, malnutrition, limited or no education, high infant mortality rates and low life expectancy.

Developed: High standards of living. The elements of this high standard of living are high level of income, economic system based on continuously, self sustaining economic growth, high life expectancy, high level of education for all level of society and great health level and nutrition.

2. Level of productivity

Developing: Low level of productivity. It is because they face a problem of scarce resources such like capital, labor, land and other inputs into production which are varies significantly from one country to another country. Moreover, the low level of productivity occurred because the producers failed to use the technologies, the human capital of the labor force and the quality and quantity of the country’s infrastructure.

Developed: High level of productivity. It is because they have sufficient resources and they used it efficient and effectively. Besides that, the high level of productivity also occurred when they successfully use modern technologies based on their expertise as they have high life expectancy.

3. Rates of population growth

Developing: The rate of population growth in developing country is high. Significantly, the rate is expected to be high because the birth rates are higher than death rates. The result is relatively high rates of population growth in most developing countries, particularly African countries. . One result of high birth rates in developing countries is that children under the age of 15 make up over one-third of the total population in low-income countries, compared with about one-sixth in high-income countries. This means that, in low-income countries, the average adult worker has to support about twice as many children as the average adult worker in a high-income country, and on a substantially lower income.

Developed: The rate of population growth in developed country is also high. Global life expectancy at birth, which is estimated to have risen from 46 years in 1950-1955 to 65 years in 2000-2005, is expected to keep rising to reach 75 years in 2045-2050. In the more developed regions, the projected increase is from 75 years today to 82 years by mid century. During 2005-2050, the net number of international migrants to more developed regions is projected to be 98 millions. Because deaths are projected to exceed births in the more developed regions by 73 millions during 2005-2050, population growth in those regions will largely be due to international migration.

4. Dependence on agriculture

Developing: Most people in developing countries live and work in rural areas. About 2/3 of people in low income countries live in rural areas compared to about 1/3 in middle income countries. Nearly two-thirds of the labor force in low-income countries is employed in production agriculture, while the corresponding figure for middle-income countries is over one-fourth.

Developed: Most people in developed countries stay and work in town. However, there is only ¼ or less people live in rural areas in developed countries. On the other hand, in high income countries which is in developed countries, there is less than 5% of the labor force is in production agriculture (in the U.S. it's only about 1%).

5. Large percentage of income spent on food

Developing: In developing countries, families and households have much less income rather than developed countries. Moreover, they contribute high percentage of what they do have is spent on food. In low-income countries, households on average spend 47% of their income on food and it’s 29% for the middle level income.

Developed: Families and households have much more income because there is only small number of labor force live in the rural areas and the other large number of labor force live in town areas. It is mean that they labor force that works at the town have high level of income if compared to the labor in the developing countries. In high-income countries, especially for developed countries, it's only 13%. For the U.S. the figure is 10%, split between food consumed at home (6%) and dining out (4%).

6. Dependence on primary exports

Developing: The economies of developing countries are oriented toward the production of primary products (agriculture, fuel, forestry, raw materials) rather than secondary activities (manufacturing) or tertiary activities (services). For developing countries as a whole about 45-50% of all exports are from primary commodities. Another 10-15% are from textiles and clothing, which are labor-intensive products. The result is that prices of primary commodities are of great importance to developing countries. Primary commodity prices tend to be quite volatile. The general trend in inflation-adjusted primary commodity prices over the last 50 years has been downward.

Developed: Less than 20% of all exports are from primary commodities, and only 5% are from textiles and clothing. It is mean that for the developed countries such as U.S. and Japan, their economies are not well depending on the primary exports only.

7. Rapid urbanization

Developing: The predominance of agriculture, rural areas, and primary commodities is diminishing rapidly in most developing countries as people move in large numbers from rural areas to cities. As much as 90% of population growth and economic growth in developing countries will be concentrated in cities in the future. A large percentage of these people will live in poverty, without access to adequate water or sanitation facilities. By 2010 developing countries will contain eight of the planet's ten megacities (cities with ten million or more inhabitants), with Mexico City, São Paulo, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Shanghai at the top of the list. According to World Bank projections there will be 27 megacities by 2015, and the urban population of developing countries will exceed four billion. That's more than the total world population 25 years ago.

Developed: Urbanization is progressing much faster in developing countries. In 1990-95, the average annual growth of the urban population in low-income countries was 3.8% and in middle-income countries, 3.1%, compared with 0.1% in high-income countries. It is because developing world has a large population percentages of it’s population also represent more people. As a result, by 1995 almost 3 quarters of the world’s 2.5 million urban residents live in developing countries. The share of the urban population in the total population of low-and middle-income countries increase from less than 22% in 1990 to 39% in 1995 and is expected to exceed 50% by 2015.

8. Countries
Developed: United States, New Zealand, Europe, Australia and Japan

Developing: Africa, all Asia excluding Japan.

(http://450.aers.psu.edu/economic_conditions.cfm) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpopulation)
(http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/beyond/global/chapter10.html)